Venationes: More Than "Lions and Christians"

The popular image of venationes has crystallised into a cliché: Christians martyred by lions in the arena. As discussed elsewhere, this narrative is historically problematic. But venationes were something far more nuanced: scenic hunting spectacles, fights between wild animals, beast-tamer performances, and yes, lethal combat between men and beasts.

Venationes existed before the Colosseum — they were already part of the programme at the Circus Maximus and smaller amphitheatres — but they reached their most grandiose form in the Flavian amphitheatre, with the unique combination of the hypogeum joint system, the lifting mechanism, and the ability to create naturalistic settings on the arena floor.

The Animals of the Arena: An Inventory of the Known World

The list of animals used in venationes testifies to the geographical extent of the Roman Empire and its ability to mobilise resources from every corner of the then-known world:

From North Africa

  • Lions (leo, imported mainly from Numidia and Mauretania): the symbol par excellence of the venationes. Modern estimates suggest that thousands of North African lions perished in the arena over the centuries — contributing to the local extinction of the lion population in North Africa by the 3rd–4th century AD.
  • Leopards (pardus): faster than lions, often used in pairs or groups
  • African elephants: massive and visually imposing, used both for the hunt and as "executioners" in death sentences (damnatio ad bestias)
  • Rhinoceroses and hippopotamuses: imported for grand inaugurations and imperial games

From Asia

  • Tigers from India and Persia: rarer than lions, considered the most dangerous and therefore the most prestigious animal
  • Asian elephants: distinguishable from African ones by their smaller ears
  • Bears from Anatolia and the Caucasus

From Northern Europe and Germanic Forests

  • Bears (ursus): among the most common animals, economically more accessible
  • European bison (uri): mentioned by Virgil and used in the inaugural games
  • Wolves (lupi): used in fights against hunting dogs

Rare Exotics

  • Giraffes (camelopardalis): brought to Rome for the first time by Julius Caesar in 46 BC, they caused a sensation. They did not fight — they were exhibited
  • Ostriches: used both in the hunt and as mounts for specialised gladiators

How a Venatio Worked

The Capture Phase

Before an animal could perform in the arena, it had to be captured, transported and kept alive — a massive logistical undertaking for the larger species.

Venalici — dealers in wild animals — operated throughout the fringes of the Empire. Lion hunting in North Africa required nets, traps and the cooperation of local populations. Transport was the most dangerous moment: animals in wooden cages on carts crossing the desert, then on ships across the Mediterranean, then by river to Rome.

A healthy lion could require months in transit. Mortality during transit was high. This is why venationes with exotic animals were extremely costly and reserved for the most important games.

The Detention and Preparation Phase

Once in Rome, the animals were housed in vivaria — detention facilities located outside the city. For the Colosseum specifically, the vivaria were probably in the vicinity of the amphitheatre and in the Lateran quarter. Then, the evening before the games, the animals were transferred to the hypogeum and placed in the waiting cages beneath the arena.

The Moment of the Show

On the morning of the games, the lifting mechanisms were ready. The hoist platforms — operated by ropes and counterweights — raised cages and animals directly through trapdoors in the arena floor. The effect for the audience was of a sudden, almost magical appearance: the animal emerged from the floor as if from the underworld.

The venatores — men specialised in arena hunting — were deployed with spears, bows or swords. The types of venatio varied:

  1. Simple venatio: venatores against a single animal
  2. Multiple venatio: several venatores against several animals, sometimes simultaneously
  3. Animal combat: lions against bulls, bears against boars, elephants against rhinoceroses
  4. Naturalistic staging: the Romans created on the arena floor settings with rocks, artificial trees and shrubs to recreate the natural habitat of the hunted animal

The Hours of the Games

In a typical day of major games, venationes occupied the morning (from the Latin meridiem: before midday), gladiatorial combat the afternoon. The midday slot was reserved for public executions (ludi meridiani) — the least prestigious of the sessions.

The Venatores: Professionals of the Arena

Venatores were specialised fighters, distinct from gladiators. They were distinguished by:

  • Armament: short spears (venabulum), short swords, sometimes bows
  • Clothing: tunics or light garments, without the heavy armour of the gladiator
  • Specialisation: some were specialists in a single type of animal
  • Status: generally considered of lower rank than gladiators proper, but not necessarily slaves

The most celebrated venatores became famous like the most popular gladiators. Funerary inscriptions of venatores show that many died relatively young — but also that some reached an advanced age and a degree of economic prosperity.

The School of the Venatores

Just as gladiators had ludi gladiatori (training schools), venatores had specialised facilities. The Ludus Magnus — the great training ground adjacent to the Colosseum — was probably used for venator training as well as gladiatorial training.

Theodoros, Carpophorus, and the Great Venatores of History

Ancient sources — in particular Martial in the books of Xenia and Apophoreta — name some venatores of exceptional fame. Carpophorus is the most celebrated: Martial praises him as superior to mythological heroes in his ability to hunt fierce animals.

In a celebratory poem for the inaugural games of the Colosseum (80 AD), Martial describes Carpophorus killing a bear, a lion and a leopard in rapid succession — a feat that brought the crowd to a frenzy. The boundary between athletic celebration and terror was an integral part of the spectacle experience.

Damnatio ad Bestias: Condemned to the Beasts

Separate from the venationes proper, the damnatio ad bestias was a capital punishment carried out in the arena: the condemned — unarmed, without armour — was exposed to the animals. It was used for common criminals, rebellious slaves, and in political and religious persecutions.

The damnatio was part of the ludi meridiani — the midday shows, less distinguished than the morning venationes and afternoon gladiatorial combats. The audience watched, but often took advantage of the break to eat or briefly leave the arena.

As discussed elsewhere, the presence of Christian martyrs in the damnatio ad bestias in the Colosseum specifically is historically uncertain, although executions of Christians are documented in other contexts. The Catholic tradition recognises the Colosseum as a place of martyrdom; academic history is more cautious.

The Ecological Impact: The End of the North African Lions

An aspect of venationes rarely discussed in tourist narratives is their ecological impact. Modern estimates — based on data from annals and epigraphic sources — calculate that over four centuries of spectacles (1st–4th centuries AD), potentially tens of thousands of large cats, hundreds of elephants and thousands of other species were captured and transported to Rome.

This pressure on the wildlife of North Africa and Asia probably contributed to the local extinction of entire animal populations:

  • The North African lion (Panthera leo leo) became locally extinct in the Maghreb region by the 4th–5th century
  • The North African elephant — the smaller species used by Hannibal — went extinct in the 1st–2nd century
  • The North African rhinoceros disappeared from historical records by the 3rd century

Witnessing a Spectacle That No Longer Exists

Venationes are no longer staged — but the stage on which they took place is still there, intact in its geometry. Arrive with your NCC driver and stand at the centre of the arena to understand what it meant to look from below. Service from €49. → Book your driver at myromedriver.com

Frequently Asked Questions

How many venationes took place each year at the Colosseum? Games were special events, not daily occurrences. The main ludi of the Roman year (Ludi Romani, Ludi Megalenses, Ludi Apollinares, etc.) could last days or weeks. Total game days in Rome in the 1st–2nd centuries are estimated at around 50–65 per year; a portion included venationes.

Did venatores train like gladiators? Yes, although with different techniques. Venatores trained primarily in the handling of short spears and rapid movement over irregular terrain. Some iconographic evidence shows venatores practising against trained animals or moving targets.

When did venationes cease at the Colosseum? The last documented venationes at the Colosseum date to 523 AD (reign of Theodoric). Gladiatorial combats had already ended before — the conventional date is 404 AD, after the episode of the monk Telemachus. Venationes continued after the end of gladiatorial games because they were perceived as less "barbaric".

Did all animals die during venationes? Not necessarily. Some shows involved the capture (rather than killing) of the animal as a test of the venator's skill. But the great majority of spectacles ended with the death of the animal, the venator, or both.

Were there female venatores? Ancient sources mention rare cases of women fighting in the arena — but as an exceptional and very publicly debated phenomenon. Female venatores were not systematic.

Article n. 20 — TIER S — MON-01 Colosseum Type: HISTORY Words: ~2,400

See also