Saturn: the god of time and harvest

Saturn was one of the oldest gods of the Roman pantheon, identified with the Greek Kronos — the Titan father of Jupiter, deity of time, harvest and agriculture.

Roman tradition attributed to Saturn the reign of a primordial golden age — a mythic time when neither slavery nor private property existed, humans lived in abundance without labour, and absolute equality prevailed. This myth of the golden age is fundamental for understanding the peculiar nature of the Saturnalia.

The cult of Saturn was very ancient: his temple on the Forum was among the very first sacred buildings of Rome. The location at the western end of the Forum — on the slope of the Capitoline — was laden with meaning: Saturn presided over the foundations of Roman civic order.

The construction of the temple

According to ancient tradition, the Temple of Saturn was dedicated in 497 or 498 BC by the consul Titus Largius, during the Republic. However, some sources attribute its foundation to the royal period, making it one of the oldest cults in Rome.

The original temple was built in tufa and local stone, following archaic construction technique. Over the centuries it was rebuilt multiple times. The structure visible today in its upper section dates from a rebuilding of 42 BC, commissioned by the general Lucius Munatius Plancus — an interesting figure: he had fought with Caesar, then Pompey, then Antony, and finally Augustus. The rebuilding was financed with the spoils of his campaigns in Gaul.

The inscription on the architrave — still legible today — reads: SENATUS POPULUSQUE ROMANUS INCENDIO CONSUMPTUM RESTITUIT "The Senate and People of Rome restored [what was] consumed by fire."

The Aerarium: the Roman state treasury

The most important function of the Temple of Saturn was as the Aerarium — the Roman state treasury. In the podium of the temple, in the chambers below the floor, were kept:

  • State gold and silver: Rome's monetary reserves
  • Provincial tributes: the annual payments from conquered regions
  • The signa militaria: military standards entrusted to the temple for safekeeping
  • Bronze tablets: the public archives of laws, international treaties and Senate decrees

The Aerarium was managed by the quaestors — Roman magistrates responsible for state finances. Access was controlled; funds could only be withdrawn with Senate authorisation.

Particularly significant was the vexillum rossum (red standard): when this banner was hoisted on the Capitoline, it signalled a state of war and the opening of the Aerarium to finance military campaigns.

The eight columns: what remains today

Of the eight Ionic granite columns visible today, six are on the front façade and two on the sides. They stand approximately 11 metres high and have shafts of grey and pink Egyptian granite — a material unavailable in the 6th century BC, indicating that the columns are the product of later rebuildings.

A notable detail: the Ionic capitals of the eight columns are not all identical. Differences in proportion and detail suggest that some columns were salvaged from earlier buildings or that medieval restorations used elements of different provenance.

The brick podium visible today is a late-imperial structure; the original tufa core is partially visible in sections where plaster has fallen. The front staircase that descended towards the Forum has not survived.

The Saturnalia: Rome's most important festival

The Temple of Saturn was the centre of the Saturnalia — the greatest popular festival of Rome, celebrated from 17 to 23 December (the calendar varied over the centuries).

The Saturnalia were characterised by a ritual inversion of the social order, in memory of Saturn's golden age:

Role reversal: during the Saturnalia, masters served their slaves at table — who ate seated while masters served them standing. Slaves could speak freely, refuse work and behave as equals to freedmen.

The public banquet: on 17 December a great public banquet was held in the Forum, open to all citizens. Days of public celebrations followed, with games, private banquets and gift-giving.

Gift exchange (strennae): wax candles (cerei), terracotta dolls (sigillaria) and small gifts were exchanged. The wealthy gave to their clients and dependants.

Freedom of speech: during the Saturnalia, open criticism of those in power was permitted without consequences — a pause in the normal social censorship.

The rex Saturnalicius (king of the Saturnalia): during private banquets a temporary king was elected who issued absurd laws for the duration of the festival.

The Saturnalia directly influenced Christian Christmas traditions in subsequent centuries: gift exchange, banquets, candles, role inversion — many European Christmas traditions have their roots in the Roman Saturnalia.

The location: the Vicus Iugarius and the Via Sacra

The Temple of Saturn stood at the intersection of the Via Sacra and the Vicus Iugarius (Street of the Yoke-makers) — the road that led to the river port on the Tiber and Rome's commercial districts.

This position was strategic: it was the junction between the religious pole of the Capitoline, the commercial axis towards the Tiber and the civic space of the Forum. The presence of the Aerarium at this node was not coincidental — Saturn was the god of material wealth as much as of time.

The Temple of Saturn in Roman history

Several episodes of Roman history are directly connected to the Temple of Saturn:

In 390 BC, during the Gallic Sack, the treasury was saved before the Gauls' arrival thanks to the vigilance of the sacred geese of the Capitoline — the famous episode of the "Capitoline geese." However, the treasury was partly surrendered to the Gauls as ransom.

When Julius Caesar crossed the Rubicon in 49 BC and marched on Rome, the Senate fled without time to remove the treasury. Caesar opened the Aerarium and seized the state gold — an act of extraordinary symbolic and practical import that financed the civil war.

Under Augustus, the Aerarium was gradually replaced as the main state fund by the imperial Fiscus — the emperor's personal fund. The Aerarium Saturni remained formally active for Senate finances, but effective control of money shifted towards the imperial court.

How to visit it today

The eight columns of the Temple of Saturn are visible from the Roman Forum, at the western end towards the Capitoline. They are probably the most photographed structure of the entire Forum.

The inscription on the architrave is legible at close range (one must approach along the modern staircase). The brick podium is accessible.

To contextualise the temple in a Forum visit, position yourself in front of the façade and identify:

  1. The six front columns and two side ones
  2. The different Ionic capitals (differences visible to the naked eye)
  3. The republican inscription on the architrave
  4. The late-antique brick core of the podium

Visiting with a private driver

The Temple of Saturn is located within the Roman Forum, included in the combined ticket.

Visit the Temple of Saturn and the Roman Forum with a private driver: door-to-door service to the heart of Roman antiquity. Service from €49. → Book your driver at myromedriver.com

Frequently asked questions

How many columns does the Temple of Saturn have? Eight Ionic granite columns: six on the façade and two on the sides. They stand approximately 11 metres high.

What was kept in the Temple of Saturn? The Roman state treasury (Aerarium): gold and silver reserves, provincial tributes, military standards and public archives on bronze tablets.

When was the Saturnalia celebrated? From 17 to 23 December. The festival featured role reversal between masters and slaves, public banquets and gift exchange.

Is the Temple of Saturn the oldest in Rome? It is among the oldest: founded in 497–498 BC according to tradition. The Temple of the Dioscuri (484 BC) is contemporary with it.

Why do the columns have different colours? The shafts are in grey and pink Egyptian granite, both of different provenance. Some differences in the capitals suggest that the columns come from successive rebuildings incorporating heterogeneous materials.

Article no. 43 — TIER S — MON-03 Roman Forum + Palatine Type: HISTORY Words: ~2,400

See also